Vitamin Information Center

PROTEIN
Protein is a necessary component for building, maintenance, and repair of many body
systems and processes, including:
•Production of collagen and keratin, which are the structural components of bones, teeth,
hair, and the outer layer of skin; they help maintain the structure of blood vessels
•Manufacture of hormones, such as insulin and thyroid hormone
•Production of enzymes that control chemical reactions in the body
•Proper immune function—production of antibodies, white blood cells, and other
immune factors
•Transportation of oxygen, vitamins, and minerals to target cells throughout the body
MACRONUTRIENTS8 | Chapter 1
•Source of energy—the liver can use protein to make glucose when there is not enough
carbohydrate available, such as when you skip a meal or follow a low-carb diet.
Food Sources
Protein is found in animal products, nuts, legumes, and, to a lesser extent, in fruits
and vegetables. When we eat protein the body breaks it down into amino acids, some
of which are called essential because they must be provided by the food we eat.
Others that can be produced by the body are called non-essential.
Protein from animal sources contains all of the essential amino acids. Therefore,
your best sources of lean protein are chicken, turkey, fi sh, and eggs. Choose free-
range and organic wherever possible to reduce ingesting harmful hormones and
chemicals.
Plant proteins do not contain all the essential amino acids and are considered
incomplete proteins. It is possible, though, to combine various plant proteins to get all
the essential amino acids. For example, eating oats, lentils, and sunfl ower seeds either
together or separately throughout the day provides all the essential amino acids. You
could also combine whole-wheat pasta with white kidney beans or tofu with brown
rice to get all the necessary amino acids. It just requires careful meal planning.
There are certain advantages of eating plant over animal proteins—they pro-
vide fi bre and phytochemicals (antioxidants), do not contain saturated fat, and
may play a role in disease prevention. Soy protein, for example, has been shown to
signifi cantly lower cholesterol and triglyceride levels, and protect against bone loss.
A number of studies have found lower risk of chronic disease in those who eat a
plant-based diet.
The Institute of Medicine recommends ranges for macronutrient intake that are
associated with a reduced risk of chronic disease while providing adequate intake
of essential nutrients. They suggest that adults get 45–65 percent of calories from
carbohydrates, 20–35 percent from fat, and 10–35 percent from protein. Ranges for
children are similar, except that infants and younger children need a slightly higher
proportion of fat (25–40 percent).

Hippocrates wisely stated back in 400 BC, “Let food be your medicine and medicine
be your food.” Modern research has validated this doctrine. Today we know that what
we eat is a major determinant of health, and that food provides both nutritive and
healing properties.
Functional foods, as defi ned by the International Food Information Council, are
“foods or dietary components that may provide a health benefi t beyond basic nutrition.”
In other words, these foods provide more than just vitamins and minerals; they
contain compounds that have benefi cial actions in the body and can reduce the risk of
chronic disease. These are foods that you want to include more of in your daily diet.
Below are some examples of functional foods and their associated health benefi ts.
• Apples provide both soluble and insoluble fi bre (one medium apple with skin provides
about 3 g of fi bre). Apple skins are a major food source of a type of fl avonoid
called quercetin, which is a potent antioxidant that helps protect against heart disease
and cancer. These fl avonoids, along with vitamin C, give apples immune- bolstering
properties. Phenolic compounds found in apple skins provide protection against
many chronic diseases and have recently been found to provide UVB sun protection.
So there is a lot of truth to the saying, “An apple a day keeps the doctor away.” Fuji
apples have the highest concentration of phenolic and fl avonoid compounds, but Red
Delicious apples are also quite high.
• Berries, cherries, and red grapes contain plant pigments called anthocyanidins, which
give these fruits their radiant red and purple colour. Anthocyanidins have antioxidant
properties, preventing free radical damage and reducing the risk of chronic disease.
These compounds are also important for proper brain and blood vessel function.
• Broccoli contains sulphoraphane and indole-3 carbinol, antioxidants that neutralize
free radicals, enhance detoxifi cation, and may reduce the risk of cancer. These
compounds are found in other cruciferous vegetables, such as kale, caulifl ower, and
cabbage. Try to have a serving of these foods every day.

• Carrots are an excellent source of many antioxidant compounds, particularly
beta-carotene, which is part of the carotenoids. Carotenoids help protect against
cardiovascular disease, cancer, macular degeneration, and cataracts, and they
also promote good night vision. New research is looking at the effects of another
phytonutrient in carrots, called falcarinol, and its ability to reduce the risk of colon
cancer. To get the maximum amount of nutrients from carrots, eat them raw or
lightly steamed.
• Chocolate and cocoa provide various fl avonoids that provide antioxidant benefi ts
for the heart and other organs. Dark chocolate contains more antioxidants and
less fat than milk chocolate. Look for products that contain 70 percent or more
cocoa.
• Citrus fruits contain fl avanones (a type of fl avonoid), antioxidants that reduce
free radicals, prevent cellular damage, and boost defences against viral infections.
Oranges, grapefruit, lemons, and limes offer a wide range of nutrients (vitamin C,
folate, and fi bre).
• Collard greens and kale contain plant pigments called lutein and zeaxanthin, which
are important for eye health and can reduce the risk of macular degeneration (agerelated
blindness). Supplements of lutein have been shown to improve vision in
those with macular degeneration and prevent disease progression. One to two servings
of kale or collard greens per week provide the recommended amount of lutein
and zeaxanthin. Other food sources include spinach, broccoli, and leeks, but they
contain a lesser amount.
• Cranberries contain proanthocyanidins, which have been shown to reduce the risk
of urinary tract infections. Preliminary research also shows that these compounds
may help lower cholesterol, improve gum health, prevent ulcers, and prevent brain
damage after a stroke. The bladder benefi ts are seen with one to two glasses of juice
daily. Look for pure cranberry juice or low-sugar juice cocktail.
• Fish and fi sh oils contain omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA), which have been
found to reduce risk of coronary heart disease. Specifi cally, they reduce triglycerides,
increase HDL (good cholesterol), reduce infl ammation, prevent clotting, and
reduce blood pressure. They are also known to be benefi cial for vision and brain
health. Choose wild (not farmed) fi sh.
GET YOUR OMEGA-3S
The recommended intake of fi sh oils for heart health is 1–3 g daily from supplements or
one to two servings of fi sh per week. Sadly, our fi sh supply is contaminated with PCBs,
dioxins, and pesticides, which increase the risk of cancer. Farmed fi sh, especially salmon,
contains the highest amount of toxins. Health authorities recommend consuming

no more than six meals per year of farmed salmon. Wild Pacifi c salmon has fewer toxins
and can be eaten once or twice a month. You can also get your omega-3s through a
fi sh oil supplement. Look for a quality product that is tested for purity and provides at
least DHA and EPA.
• Flaxseed provides lignans, plant compounds with antioxidant activity that may
protect against heart disease and some cancers. (It lowers LDL cholesterol, total
cholesterol, and triglycerides.) Flaxseed is a good source of dietary fi bre (14 g of
fi bre per 50 g serving) and is thus used to relieve constipation and to treat ulcerative
colitis and irritable bowel syndrome. Flaxseed also contains benefi cial omega-3
fatty acids. To obtain all the benefi ts, eat the milled fl axseed or get whole seeds
and crush them in a food processor or coffee grinder. Take 15 mL (1 tbsp) once or
twice daily. Store milled seeds in the refrigerator or freezer in an opaque, airtight
container; they will be stable for 90 days.
• Garlic contains sulphur compounds, which offer a number of health benefi ts. Studies
have shown that garlic mildly reduces cholesterol, reduces LDL oxidation (atherosclerosis),
prevents blood clotting, and fi ghts cancer. It also possesses anti-infl ammatory,
antibacterial, and antiviral effects. Studies have found benefi ts with as little as 900
mg of garlic per day, which is approximately equivalent to one clove.
• Ginger has a long history of use for relieving stomach problems. Clinical studies have
validated its benefi ts for preventing the symptoms of motion sickness (especially
seasickness) and in the treatment of nausea and vomiting associated with pregnancy.
The active compounds in ginger, called gingerols, have potent anti-infl ammatory
effects, making it helpful in the treatment of arthritis and other infl ammatory conditions.
New research suggests that ginger may also help fi ght cancer. Choose fresh
ginger over the dry (powder) form to maximize intake of the active compounds.
• Green tea is rich in catechins (a type of fl avonoid) called epigallocatechin gallate
(EGCG). This compound has been found to reduce the risk of certain cancers,
reduce the size of existing tumours, and inhibit tumour growth. It also supports
heart function by lowering blood pressure and reducing the risk of fatal
heart attacks. EGCG also supports nerve function and may benefi t Parkinson’s
and Alzheimer’s disease. Recently EGCG has been found to reduce body fat and
improve metabolism. Most studies evaluating the health benefi ts of green tea involved
drinking 750–2,500 mL daily. Black tea, white tea, Oolong tea, and other
teas derived from the plant Camellia sinesis may offer similar health benefi ts but
are not as widely researched.
• Oat bran contains a soluble fi bre called beta-glucan, which has been shown to
lower cholesterol and reduce the risk of heart disease. Studies have found that 3 g
of beta-glucan daily can reduce total cholesterol by an average of 5 percent. This

amount can be found in approximately 60 g of oatmeal or 40 g of oat bran. Other
good forms of soluble fi bre are psyllium, apples, and beans.
• Onions contain a variety of nutrients, such as vitamin C and chromium. Powerful
sulphur compounds in onions are responsible for their pungent odour and for many
of their health benefi ts. They can help reduce blood sugar, cholesterol, and blood
pressure. Onions provide a concentrated source of the fl avonoid quercitin, which
helps reduce infl ammation and may halt the growth of cancer. Cooking meats with
onions may help reduce the amount of carcinogens produced when meat is cooked
at high heat. There are many varieties of onions. In general, the more pungent an
onion, the more active compounds and health benefi ts it has.
• Soybeans contain isofl avones (daidzein and genistein), which help reduce cholesterol
levels, fi ght cancer, increase bone density, and reduce menopausal symptoms.
Research suggests that consuming 25 g of soy protein daily can provide a signifi cant
cholesterol-lowering effect. Aside from soybeans and tofu, you can get the benefi ts
of soy protein by eating soy nuts, soy milk, soy yogurt, and bars and shakes containing
soy protein.
• Tomatoes contain an antioxidant called lycopene, which has been found to reduce
the risk of prostate and colon cancer, support prostate health, reduce blood clotting
and infl ammation, and reduce heart attack risk. Most studies found health benefi ts
with an intake of 8–10 mg daily. Lycopene is also present in tomato sauce, tomato
paste, and ketchup, which contain a higher amount of lycopene than fresh tomatoes.
To obtain 10 mg of lycopene, you would have to eat about 10–15 raw tomatoes,
60 mL (2 oz.) of ketchup, or 20 mL (4 tsp) of tomato paste. Lycopene is also found
in papaya, strawberries, watermelon, guava, and pink grapefruit.
• Yogurt contains active bacteria cultures known as probiotics or friendly bacteria,
which improve gastrointestinal health (digestion and elimination) and immune
function. These active cultures also help digest the naturally occurring sugar (lactose)
in dairy products that causes bloating and diarrhea in some people. Avoid
the “diet” or “light” yogurts, since they are sweetened with aspartame, a chemical
whose safety in food is questionable. The amount of probiotics in yogurt varies
with brand and storage. For this reason those looking for the consistent benefi ts of
probiotics often opt for supplements.
Many compounds found in functional foods are available in supplement form.
Supplements often provide a standardized amount of the active compounds, they are
easy to take, and are a great way to complement the diet.
The health benefi ts make functional foods worthy of inclusion in your daily diet.
Try to have a few each day. Look for organic products to reduce your exposure to
harmful pesticides.

Micronutrients are vitamins and minerals—nutrients required by the body in small
amounts—yet have powerful effects. They assist in energy-producing reactions,
growth and development, protect against free radical damage, and perform many
vital functions. Micronutrients are essential for health, and a defi ciency can lead to
health problems and disease.
In 2002 the US Food and Nutrition Board, the Institute of Medicine, and Health
Canada released a report providing reference values for nutrient intakes for healthy
North Americans, including:
• Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA): The average daily dietary nutrient intake
level suffi cient to meet the nutrient requirement of nearly all (97–98 percent)
healthy individuals in a particular life stage and gender group.
• Adequate Intake (AI): The recommended average daily intake level based on observed
or experimentally determined estimates of nutrient intake of apparently
healthy people that are assumed to be adequate. The AI is given when an RDA
cannot be determined.
• Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL): The highest average daily nutrient intake level
that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects for almost all individuals in the
general population. As intake increases above the UL, the potential risk of adverse
effects may increase.
In this chapter I have outlined the essential vitamins, minerals, and trace elements;
their functions in the body; their role in disease prevention and treatment; defi ciency
symptoms; drugs that deplete; and supplement guidelines.
The table at the end of this chapter summarizes food sources, recommended intake
levels, and possible side effects and toxicity for the various nutrients. For some
nutrients an RDA has not been established; however, an AI is provided. It is important
to note that the RDA is mainly based on information on short-term effects. The optimum
nutrient intake for health and disease prevention may be higher than the RDA,
and varies with age, state of health, diet, and other factors.WHO NEEDS SUPPLEMENTS?
There are many factors that cause nutrient depletion, such as poor diet, stress, exercise,
use of prescription drugs, environmental toxicity, and excessive alcohol intake. For
many micronutrients, defi ciency, inadequate intake or nutrient depletion is common
relative to the RDA. This is why supplements are so important in making up for shortcomings
in the diet and preventing defi ciencies.
VITAMINS
There are 13 essential vitamins that our bodies need for proper growth, function, and
maintenance of healthy tissues. The vitamins are either water-soluble or fat-soluble.
The B-vitamins and vitamin C dissolve in water and are easily eliminated from the
body. Adverse reactions, even with high-dose supplements, are rare with these vitamins.
Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, and E) are not readily excreted from the body
and have the potential to accumulate in the tissues and cause adverse effects at high
doses.
Vitamin A
• Found in animal foods and converted from beta-carotene in plant foods.
• Required for vision, gene expression, reproduction, embryonic development, red
blood cell production, and immune function.
• Prescription vitamin A derivatives are used to treat skin conditions (acne) and retinitis
pigmentosa (genetic eye disease).
• Defi ciency is rare in Canada, but common in developing countries due to malnutrition.
It causes night blindness, dry eyes and skin, and impaired growth.
• Drugs that deplete vitamin A: cholestyramine, colestipol, mineral oil, and neomycin.
• Supplements should be avoided by those at risk of lung cancer (smokers) or liver
toxicity (alcoholics, liver disease).
• Doses greater than 10,000 IU daily should be avoided by pregnant women due to the
risk of birth defects. Most prenatal vitamins provide 5,000 IU.
• Doses greater than 5,000 IU may increase risk of osteoporosis.
• Supplements of vitamin A beyond what is provided in a multivitamin are not recommended
due to risk of toxicity. To avoid this risk, choose a multivitamin that
contains beta-carotene, which is converted to vitamin A in the liver, but is not associated
with health risks.
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
• Required for energy production, nerve and muscle function, enzyme reactions, and
fatty acid production.
• Defi ciency causes beriberi, a disease that affects cardiovascular, nervous, muscular,
and gastrointestinal systems.
• Defi ciency is common in developing countries; in North America it occurs in alcoholics,
those with kidney disease, malabsorption syndromes (celiac disease), and
in those with poor diets.

• Drugs that deplete vitamin B1: furosemide, antibiotics, oral contraceptives, and
phenytoin.
• Most people get adequate thiamine from diet and/or a multivitamin.
Vitamin B2 (Ribofl avin)
• Required for energy metabolism, enzyme reactions, vision, and skin/hair/nail
health; functions as an antioxidant; activates vitamin B6, niacin, and folate.
• May play a role in preventing migraine headaches and cataracts.
• Defi ciency occurs in alcoholics, the elderly, and those with poor diets.
• Symptoms of defi ciency include sore throat; redness/swelling of the mouth, throat,
tongue, lips, and skin; decreased red blood cell count; and blood vessel growth over
the eyes. Defi ciency may impair iron absorption and increase risk of pre-eclampsia
in pregnant women.
• Drugs that deplete vitamin B2: antibiotics, chlorpromazine, amitriptyline, adriamycin,
and phenobarbitol.
• Most people get adequate ribofl avin from diet and/or a multivitamin.
Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
• Required for energy metabolism, enzyme reactions, skin and nerve health, and
digestion.
• High doses of nicotinic acid (3 g daily) can lower cholesterol (reduce LDL and triglycerides
and increase HDL) and reduce the risk of heart attack and stroke; high
dosages should be supervised by a physician.
• Defi ciency causes pellagra, the symptoms of which are skin rash, diarrhea, dementia,
and death.
• Defi ciency may be caused by poor diet, malabsorption diseases, dialysis, and HIV.
• Drugs that deplete vitamin B3: antibiotics, isoniazid, and 5-Fluorouracil (chemotherapy).
• High-dose niacin, taken along with statin drugs (i.e., lovastatin), may increase the
risk of rhabdomyolysis (muscle degeneration and kidney disease).
• Most people get adequate niacin from diet and/or a multivitamin; supplements may
be recommended for those with high cholesterol.
Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)
• Required for carbohydrate metabolism, adrenal function, enzyme reactions, and
production of fats, cholesterol, bile acids, hormones, neurotransmitters, and red
blood cells.
• Defi ciency is rare, except in malnutrition, and causes burning/tingling in hands and
feet, fatigue, and headache.
• Drugs that deplete vitamin B5: oral contraceptives, amitriptyline, imipramine, and
desipramine.
• Most people get adequate niacin from diet and/or a multivitamin.

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
• Necessary for protein and fat metabolism, hormone function (estrogen and testosterone),
and the production of red blood cells, niacin, and neurotransmitters
(serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine).
• Used therapeutically for PMS, depression, morning sickness, carpal tunnel syndrome,
and heart health (lowers homocysteine, an amino acid that, at high levels,
can cause arteriosclerosis and build up arterial plaque).
• Defi ciency is uncommon, except in alcoholics and the elderly, and causes seizures,
irritability, depression, confusion, mouth sores, and impaired immune function.
• Drugs that deplete vitamin B6: antibiotics, oral contraceptives, isoniazid, penicillamine,
and Parkinson’s drugs.
• Supplements are recommended for the elderly, alcoholics, and those with poor diets.
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)
• Required for nerve function, synthesis of DNA and RNA, metabolism of energy,
enzyme reactions, and production of red blood cells.
• Used therapeutically for heart health (lowers homocysteine), male infertility, prevention
of neural tube defects, asthma, and cancer prevention.
• Defi ciency is common among the elderly and those with poor diets, pernicious anemia,
depression, Alzheimer’s, or malabsorption conditions (celiac disease).
• Defi ciency symptoms: anemia, appetite loss, constipation, numbness and tingling
in the extremities, and confusion. Pregnant women with defi ciency have increased
risk of giving birth to a child with neural tube defects.
• Drugs that deplete B12: acid-lowering drugs (omeprazole, lansoprazole, ranitidine),
oral contraceptives, antibiotics, cholestyramine, and metformin.
• Supplements are recommended for those over age 50, vegetarians, women planning
to become pregnant, those with poor diets, and those at risk of heart disease.
Biotin
• Part of the B-vitamin family; involved in the synthesis of fat, glycogen, and amino
acids and enzyme reactions; required for DNA replication; important for healthy
hair and nails.
• Used therapeutically to strengthen fi ngernails.
• Defi ciency is rare except in those with hereditary disorders of biotin metabolism,
liver disease, and during pregnancy (due to increased needs). It can also occur in
those who consume raw egg white for prolonged periods (weeks to years) because
a protein found in egg white (avidin) binds biotin and prevents its absorption or in
those given intravenous feeding without biotin supplementation.
• Defi ciency symptoms include hair loss; scaly red rash around the eyes, nose, mouth,
and genital area; depression; lethargy; hallucination; numbness and tingling of the
extremities; and impaired glucose utilization and immune system function.
• Drugs that deplete biotin: primidone, carbamazepine, phenobarbital, phentyoin,
valproic acid, and antibiotics.
• Most people get adequate biotin from diet and/or supplements.

Folate (Folic Acid)
• Part of the B-vitamin family; known as folate when it occurs in foods, or as folic
acid when present in supplements or added to foods.
• Required for cell division, growth, amino acid metabolism, enzyme reactions, and
production of RNA, DNA, and red blood cells.
• Used for heart health (lowers homocysteine) and prevention of cancer (colon and
cervical) and birth defects (neural tube).
• Defi ciency occurs in alcoholics and those with poor diets, and causes anemia,
fatigue, weakness, headache, hair loss, diarrhea, and poor immune function.
Pregnancy or cancer results in increased rates of cell division and metabolism, increasing
the need for folate.
• Drugs that deplete folate: non-steroidal anti-infl ammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such
as ibuprofen and aspirin, phenytoin, methotrexate phenobarbital, cholestyramine,
colestipol, trimethoprim, and sulfasalazine.
• Supplements are recommended for most adults for heart and cancer protection, and
especially for pregnant women; multivitamins typically provide the recommended
amount of 400 mcg per day.
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
• Required for synthesis of collagen (structural component of blood vessels, tendons,
and bone), norepinephrine (neurotransmitter), and carnitine (amino acid involved
in energy production); promotes wound healing; supports immune function and
gum health; and has antioxidant properties.
• Used to prevent cataracts, macular degeneration, heart disease, stroke, cancer, and
colds; improve wound healing and response to stress; reduce bronchial spasms in
asthmatics; and prevent lead toxicity.
• Severe defi ciency causes scurvy (bleeding, bruising, hair and tooth loss, joint pain,
and swelling), which is rare today.
• Marginal defi ciencies are common among the elderly, alcoholics, and those with
cancer, chronic illness, or stress. Symptoms include fatigue, easy bruising, poor
wound healing and appetite, anemia, and sore joints.
• Drugs that deplete vitamin C: oral contraceptives, aspirin, corticosteroids, and
furosemide.
• Large doses of vitamin C (greater than 1,000 mg/day) may reduce the effect of warfarin
(blood-thinning drug).
• The Linus Pauling Institute recommends 400 mg of vitamin C daily, which is higher
than the RDA, yet much lower than the UL. Most multivitamin supplements provide
60 mg of vitamin C.
• Natural and synthetic forms are chemically identical and have the same effects on
the body.
• Mineral salts of ascorbic acid (i.e., calcium ascorbate) are buffered and therefore
less acidic and less likely to cause upset stomach.

Vitamin D
• Regulates calcium and phosphorus levels and promotes absorption of these minerals
for growth of bones and teeth; involved in insulin secretion; supports immune
function; regulates blood pressure.
• Vitamin D can be produced in the skin upon exposure to sunlight or must be obtained
from the diet.
• Used to prevent and treat osteoporosis, psoriasis, autoimmune disease, and to reduce
the risk of cancer.
• Defi ciency occurs with inadequate dietary intake, limited sun exposure, kidney or
liver disease, and alcoholism. Elderly, dark-skinned, obese people, or those with
infl ammatory bowel disease and fat-malabsorption syndromes (celiac disease and
cystic fi brosis) are also at greater risk.
• Defi ciency causes rickets (weak, deformed bones) in children, osteomalacia (soft
bones) and osteoporosis in adults, dental problems, muscle weakness, and tooth
decay.
• Drugs that deplete vitamin D: carbamazepine, phenytoin, phenobarbital, cimetidine,
ranitidine, cholestyramine, colestipol, orlistat, and mineral oil.
• Since vitamin D is found in few foods and at low amounts, a supplement is recommended
for most people. Most multivitamins provide 400 IU (10 mcg). Those with
limited sun exposure, osteoporosis, multiple sclerosis, psoriasis, and those over age
65 should consider additional vitamin D.
Vitamin E
• Is an antioxidant (protects cell membranes against oxidative damage; prevents LDL
oxidation) that supports immune function, prevents blood clotting, and dilates
blood vessels.
• Used to prevent and treat heart disease, cancer, macular degeneration, and cataracts,
enhance immune response, reduce oxidative stress, and improve cognitive
function.
• Defi ciency is rare, except in those who are malnourished or who have fat-malabsorption
conditions (celiac disease, cystic fi brosis); however, suboptimal intake is
common and associated with increased risk of heart disease.
• Symptoms of defi ciency include impaired balance and coordination, damage to sensory
nerves (peripheral neuropathy), muscle weakness (myopathy), and damage to
the retina of the eye (pigmented retinopathy).
• Drugs that deplete vitamin E: cholestyramine, colestipol, isoniazid, mineral oil,
orlistat, sucralfate, phenobarbitol, phenytoin, and carbamazepine.
• Vitamin E may enhance the blood-thinning effects of warfarin.
• It is diffi cult to achieve the RDA from diet alone; supplements are particularly necessary
to achieve amounts needed for disease prevention.
• Look for natural vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol); the synthetic form (dl-alphatocopherol)
is less bioavailable (i.e., less absorbable) and only half as potent.

Vitamin D
• Regulates calcium and phosphorus levels and promotes absorption of these minerals
for growth of bones and teeth; involved in insulin secretion; supports immune
function; regulates blood pressure.
• Vitamin D can be produced in the skin upon exposure to sunlight or must be obtained
from the diet.
• Used to prevent and treat osteoporosis, psoriasis, autoimmune disease, and to reduce
the risk of cancer.
• Defi ciency occurs with inadequate dietary intake, limited sun exposure, kidney or
liver disease, and alcoholism. Elderly, dark-skinned, obese people, or those with
infl ammatory bowel disease and fat-malabsorption syndromes (celiac disease and
cystic fi brosis) are also at greater risk.
• Defi ciency causes rickets (weak, deformed bones) in children, osteomalacia (soft
bones) and osteoporosis in adults, dental problems, muscle weakness, and tooth
decay.
• Drugs that deplete vitamin D: carbamazepine, phenytoin, phenobarbital, cimetidine,
ranitidine, cholestyramine, colestipol, orlistat, and mineral oil.
• Since vitamin D is found in few foods and at low amounts, a supplement is recommended
for most people. Most multivitamins provide 400 IU (10 mcg). Those with
limited sun exposure, osteoporosis, multiple sclerosis, psoriasis, and those over age
65 should consider additional vitamin D.
Vitamin E
• Is an antioxidant (protects cell membranes against oxidative damage; prevents LDL
oxidation) that supports immune function, prevents blood clotting, and dilates
blood vessels.
• Used to prevent and treat heart disease, cancer, macular degeneration, and cataracts,
enhance immune response, reduce oxidative stress, and improve cognitive
function.
• Defi ciency is rare, except in those who are malnourished or who have fat-malabsorption
conditions (celiac disease, cystic fi brosis); however, suboptimal intake is
common and associated with increased risk of heart disease.
• Symptoms of defi ciency include impaired balance and coordination, damage to sensory
nerves (peripheral neuropathy), muscle weakness (myopathy), and damage to
the retina of the eye (pigmented retinopathy).
• Drugs that deplete vitamin E: cholestyramine, colestipol, isoniazid, mineral oil,
orlistat, sucralfate, phenobarbitol, phenytoin, and carbamazepine.
• Vitamin E may enhance the blood-thinning effects of warfarin.
• It is diffi cult to achieve the RDA from diet alone; supplements are particularly necessary
to achieve amounts needed for disease prevention.
• Look for natural vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol); the synthetic form (dl-alphatocopherol)
is less bioavailable (i.e., less absorbable) and only half as potent.

• A high intake of sodium (salt), protein, phosphorus (soft drinks and food additives),
or caffeine (more than 2 cups of coffee or 300 mg caffeine per day) can
promote calcium losses.
• Calcium supplements may reduce the effi cacy of calcium channel blockers (drugs
used to lower blood pressure); use with thiazide diuretics increases the risk of
hypercalcemia (high blood calcium levels); calcium supplements may reduce absorption
of antibiotics (tetracycline, quinolones), bisphosphonates (osteoprosis
drugs), and levothyroxine (thyroid hormone).
• It is diffi cult to meet the RDA through diet alone unless dairy intake is high. Most
multivitamin/mineral supplements provide a small amount of calcium because it is
quite bulky. Therefore, a separate calcium supplement may be necessary, especially
for those at risk of osteoporosis and those with high blood pressure.
• There are several forms of calcium: Carbonate provides the highest amount of calcium
(40 percent) and is inexpensive; citrate provides 21 percent calcium, but may
be better absorbed in the elderly and those taking acid-lowering drugs.
• To maximize absorption, take no more than 500 mg of elemental calcium at one
time, take with meals, and ensure adequate vitamin D intake (as this is required for
calcium absorption).
• Separate calcium-rich foods and supplements by two hours from iron supplements
(calcium reduces iron absorption); avoid drinking tea with meals, as the tannins in
tea reduce calcium absorption.
• Some vegetables contain chemicals that inhibit the absorption of calcium, such as
oxalic acid, which is found in raw spinach, rhubarb, sweet potato, and dried beans.
Cooking these foods releases calcium that is bound to oxalic acid, thus improving
the amount you can absorb. Phytic acid, which is found in wheat bran or dried
beans, also reduces calcium absorption.
Magnesium
• Required for nerve and muscle function, formation of bones and teeth, synthesis
of the antioxidant glutathione, cell membranes, and body temperature regulation;
involved in energy production, numerous enzyme reactions, and synthesis of DNA
and RNA.
• Used to prevent heart disease and in the treatment of high blood pressure, pre-eclampsia,
heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, migraine headaches, and asthma.
• Defi ciency is uncommon, but may occur in those with poor diets, malabsorption
syndromes (celiac disease), Crohn’s disease, intestinal surgery or infl ammation,
kidney disease, diabetes, alcoholism, and in the elderly due to reduced absorption.
• Marginal defi ciency (consuming less than the RDA) is common and is estimated to
affect 75 percent of people.
• Symptoms of defi ciency: muscle cramps and spasms, weakness, insomnia, poor
appetite, kidney stones, osteoporosis, nervousness, irritability, anxiety, depression,
and high blood pressure.
• Drugs that deplete magnesium: furosemide, hydrochlorothiazine, cholestyramine,
and oral contraceptives.

• Other interactions: Magnesium reduces absorption of digoxin, nitrofurantoin, antimalarial
drugs, quinolone antibiotics, tetracycline, chlorpromazine, alendronate,
and etidronate, so separate intake of magnesium from these foods by two hours.
• High doses of zinc (greater than140 mg/day) reduce magnesium absorption.
• It is diffi cult to meet the RDA through diet alone; therefore, a multivitamin/mineral
supplement is recommended. Certain individuals may require an additional magnesium
supplement.
Phosphorus
• Required for structure of bones, teeth, soft tissue, and cell membranes (phospholipids);
energy production and storage; enzyme reactions; hormones; formation of
DNA and RNA; and maintaining acid-base balance.
• Defi ciency is rare except among alcoholics and those with kidney disease, malabsorption
syndromes (celiac or Crohn’s disease), or poor diets.
• Symptoms of defi ciency: poor appetite, anemia, muscle weakness, bone pain, rickets
in children, osteomalacia in adults, increased risk of infection, and numbness
and tingling of extremities.
• Drugs that deplete phosphorus: aluminum and magnesium (antacids and supplements),
cholestyramine, and digoxin.
• Most people get adequate phosphorus through diet; supplements are rarely
necessary.
TRACE MINERALS
Chromium
• Involved in glucose metabolism (enhances effect of insulin) and enzyme reactions.
• Used for diabetes and for those with impaired glucose tolerance and to lower cholesterol
and triglycerides.
• Severe defi ciency is rare, but marginal defi ciency is common; it is estimated that 90
percent of adults consume less than the RDA.
• The main cause of defi ciency is poor dietary intake (high-sugar diets increase urinary
excretion of chromium).
• Defi ciency results in impaired glucose utilization and may be a contributing factor
to the development of type 2 diabetes; symptoms include elevated blood sugar,
numbness, and tingling in the extremities and nerve problems.
• Drugs that deplete chromium: corticosteroids (prednisone).
• Other interactions: Chromium may enhance the blood sugar-lowering effects of insulin
and oral drugs (glyburide and metformin), thus requiring a dosage adjustment.
• Since marginal defi ciencies are common, a multivitamin/mineral complex containing
chromium is recommended. Chromium is available in several forms. Most
studies involving chromium were done with the picolinate form, which is readily
absorbed and utilized by the body. Certain individuals (diabetics and those at risk
for diabetes) may require an additional supplement.

Copper
• A component of enzymes, which are required for energy production, connective
tissue formation, iron metabolism, brain and nervous system, synthesis of neurotransmitters,
melanin, myelin, hemoglobin, and the antioxidant superoxide
dismutase; involved in regulating gene expression.
• Severe defi ciency is rare, but marginal defi ciencies are common. The typical diet
provides about 50 percent of the RDA. Others at risk: Premature and low birthweight
infants with diarrhea; infants fed only cow’s milk formula, which is low in
copper; those with malnutrition, malabsorption syndromes (celiac disease), cystic
fi brosis, and those receiving intravenous feeding.
• Defi ciency leads to iron defi ciency and anemia, low white blood cell count (increased
risk of infection), osteoporosis, loss of skin pigment, and impaired growth
in children.
• Drugs that deplete copper: penicillamine, ethambutol, and zidovudine.
• Other interactions: Prolonged high doses of zinc (50 mg daily or more) may result
in copper defi ciency.
• A varied diet provides adequate copper for most individuals. In addition, taking a
multivitamin/mineral complex will provide the RDA.
Fluoride
• Essential for formation of healthy bones and teeth.
• Used to prevent cavities, harden tooth enamel, and strengthen bones (prevent
osteoporosis).
• Defi ciency causes tooth decay and dental caries (cavities).
• Drugs that deplete fl uoride: Calcium supplements and calcium- and aluminum-containing
antacids reduce fl uoride absorption (separate intake of fl uoride from these
by two hours).
• Supplements are available by prescription and are recommended only for children
living in areas with low water fl uoride concentrations; rarely required for adults.
• People who consume well water should have the fl uoride content of their water
tested.
Iodine
• Required to make thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, energy production,
and body temperature, and are essential for growth and reproduction.
• Used for prevention of radiation-induced thyroid cancer in those with iodine defi -
ciency and to treat fi brocystic breast disease.
• Defi ciency may occur in those who do not consume salt, fi sh, or sea vegetables
and is becoming more common in the general population due to restrictions on salt
intake for blood pressure.
• Defi ciency reduces thyroid hormone production, causing hypothyroidism, fatigue,
weight gain, goiter, miscarriage, birth defects, and stunted growth. It is also the
most common cause of brain damage worldwide.
• Drugs that deplete iodine: potassium iodide, possibly resulting in hypothyroidism.

Other interactions: Amiodarone (heart drug) contains high levels of iodine and may
affect thyroid function; potassium iodide may decrease the anticoagulant effect of
warfarin.
• A defi ciency of selenium, vitamin A, or iron can worsen iodine defi ciency.
• Foods containing goitrogens—such as cabbage, broccoli, caulifl ower, Brussels
sprouts, and soybeans—inhibit the synthesis of thyroid hormone. These foods are
a concern only for those who are iodine defi cient and consume high amounts of
them. Cooking deactivates the goitrogens.
• Supplements are rarely necessary, but should be considered in pregnant and lactating
women if dietary iodine is insuffi cient to meet the RDA.
• A daily prenatal supplement providing 150 mcg of iodine will help to ensure that
pregnant and breast-feeding women consume suffi cient iodine during these critical
periods.
Iron
• Required to produce hemoglobin and myoglobin (proteins involved in the transport
and storage of oxygen) and amino acids (carnitine); required for cellular energy
production; produces enzymes that have antioxidant effects; supports DNA synthesis
and immune function.
• Used for prevention of anemia in pregnancy and in others at risk, and in the treatment
of restless legs syndrome.
• Defi ciency is common, especially in women with heavy menstrual bleeding and
during pregnancy (increased needs for baby), vegetarians, and those with malabsorption
syndromes (celiac disease), bleeding ulcers, copper defi ciency, and in
surgery.
• Defi ciency leads to depleted iron stores, impaired red blood cell formation, and
anemia. Symptoms include fatigue, paleness, headache, hair loss, brittle nails, rapid
heart rate, increased risk of infections, and rapid breathing on exertion.
• Drugs that deplete iron: antacids, cimetidine, ranitidine, omeprazole, lansoprazole,
aspirin, anti-infl ammatory drugs, and cholestyramine.
• Iron supplements can bind to and reduce absorption and effi cacy of levodopa, levothyroxine,
methyldopa, quinolones, tetracyclines, bisphosphonates, and zinc and
calcium supplements. To avoid this, separate intake of iron supplements from these
products by two hours.
• Vitamin C-rich foods and supplements enhance the absorption of nonheme iron
(form of iron found primarily in plants).
• A multivitamin/mineral complex providing the RDA is recommended for most premenopausal
and pregnant women and those at risk of defi ciency.
• Men and post-menopausal women should choose iron-free multivitamin/mineral
supplements to avoid iron excess.
Manganese
• Required for the production and activation of enzymes that are involved in energy metabolism;
bone, cartilage, and collagen formation; and the production of antioxidants.

• Defi ciency is uncommon, but may occur in those with epilepsy, hypoglycemia, diabetes,
schizophrenia, and osteoporosis.
• Defi ciency symptoms: impaired growth and reproductive function, skeletal abnormalities,
impaired glucose tolerance, and altered carbohydrate and fat metabolism.
• Drugs that deplete: magnesium-containing antacids and laxatives and tetracycline.
• Absorption is reduced by calcium, phosphate, and iron.
• Supplements beyond the amount provided by diet and/or a multivitamin and mineral
complex are not necessary.
Molybdenum
• Required for the production of enzymes that are cofactors in amino acid metabolism,
formation of uric acid, and the metabolism of drugs and toxins.
• Defi ciency is extremely rare and may occur in those with a rare genetic condition;
defi ciency causes seizures, developmental delays in neonates, tachycardia, brain
damage, and coma.
• Drugs that deplete: high intakes of copper or sulphate.
• Supplements beyond the amount provided by diet and/or a multivitamin and mineral
complex are not necessary.
Selenium
• Component of enzymes that function as antioxidants; involved in detoxifi cation;
converts thyroid hormone to its active form; supports immune function; enhances
the antioxidant activity of vitamin E.
• Used to strengthen immune function and prevent infection, to protect against colon
and prostate cancer, and to prevent oxidative stress and support immune system
function in those with HIV/AIDS.
• Defi ciency is uncommon, but may occur in those with poor diets, those who live
in areas where the soil is depleted in selenium, Crohn’s disease, and malabsorption
syndromes (celiac disease).
• Symptoms of defi ciency: muscular weakness and wasting, cardiomyopathy (infl ammation
of the heart), pancreatic damage, and impaired immune function.
• Drugs that deplete: valproic acid and corticosteroids (prednisone).
• Supplements beyond the amount provided by diet and/or a multivitamin and mineral
complex may be necessary for some individuals.
Zinc
• Involved in numerous enzyme reactions; required for growth and development, immune
and neurological function, reproduction and regulation of gene expression;
stabilizes the structure of proteins and cell membranes.
• Used to support immune function, reduce severity and duration of the common
cold, and delay the progression of macular degeneration.
• Severe defi ciency is rare, except in those with a genetic disorder, severe malnutrition
or malabsorption, severe burns, or chronic diarrhea.

• Marginal defi ciencies are common in malnourished people, vegetarians, pregnant
women, the elderly, and those with celiac disease, Crohn’s disease, colitis, and
sickle cell anemia.
• Symptoms of defi ciency include impaired growth and development, skin rashes, severe
diarrhea, immune system defi ciencies, impaired wound healing, poor appetite,
impaired taste sensation, night blindness, clouding of the corneas, and behavioural
disturbances.
• Drugs that deplete: diuretics, anticonvulsants, iron supplements, penicillamine,
ACE-inhibitor drugs, acid-reducing drugs, and oral contraceptives.
• Zinc supplements can reduce copper levels, so look for a multivitamin that contains
copper as well as zinc.
• Zinc supplements can reduce absorption of antibiotics (tetracycline and quinolones),
so separate intake of zinc supplements from these products by two hours.
• Since the average zinc intake is below the RDA and many conditions and drugs
deplete zinc levels, a supplement should be considered. Most multivitamin and
mineral complexes provide at least the RDA for zinc.
ELECTROLYTES
Potassium
• Required to maintain fl uid balance; required for nerve conduction and muscle
function; cofactor for enzymes involved in energy production and carbohydrate
metabolism.
• Used for prevention of stroke, osteoporosis, kidney stones, and in the treatment of
high blood pressure.
• Defi ciency (hypokalemia) is common and caused by prolonged diarrhea or vomiting,
alcoholism, kidney failure, laxative abuse, anorexia, or magnesium defi ciency.
• Defi ciency symptoms include fatigue, muscle weakness and cramps, bloating, constipation,
and abdominal pain. Severe hypokalemia may result in muscular paralysis
or abnormal heart rhythms.
• Drugs that deplete: furosemide, hydrochlorothiazide, corticosteroids, pseudoephedrine,
caffeine, and high-dose penicillin.
• Drugs that enhance potassium (may cause hyperkalemia): Spironolactone, triamterene,
amiloride, ACE-inhibitors, anti-infl ammatory drugs (ibuprofen), heaparin,
digoxin, and beta-blockers.
• The average dietary potassium intake is about 2,300 mg/day for women and 3,100
mg/day for men. Evidence suggests that diets supplying at least 4,700 mg per day
are associated with a decreased risk of stroke, hypertension, osteoporosis, and kidney
stones, and this is the AI level set by the Institute of Medicine.
• Multivitamin/mineral complexes typically provide 99 mg of potassium per serving.
Depending on dietary intake and personal risk factors, additional potassium supplements
may be necessary for some people.
• Take supplements with meals or choose a microencapsulated form to reduce the
risk of upset stomach.

Sodium
• Regulates fl uid balance along with potassium; required for nerve conduction and
muscle function; assists absorption of chloride, amino acids, glucose, and water;
regulates blood volume and blood pressure.
• Excess sodium intake is linked to gastric cancer, osteoporosis, high blood pressure,
and kidney stones. Reducing sodium intake may help to reduce the risk of these
conditions.
• Defi ciency is rare; low blood levels of sodium (hyponatremia) may be caused by
fl uid retention or excess sodium loss (excessive sweating, prolonged exercise, severe
and prolonged vomiting and diarrhea, and kidney disease).
• Symptoms of hyponatremia include headache, nausea, muscle cramps, fatigue, confusion,
and fainting. Severe cases may lead to swelling of the brain, seizures, coma,
and brain damage.
• Drugs that deplete sodium: diuretics, anti-infl ammatory drugs, carbamazepine, codeine,
morphine, and some antidepressants.
• Supplements are rarely necessary, except in the above-mentioned conditions.
• The AI level for sodium and sodium chloride (salt) is based on the amount needed
to replace losses through sweat in moderately active people and to achieve a diet
that provides suffi cient amounts of other essential nutrients. Most adults consume
an amount much greater than the AI.

Macronutrients are essential nutrients—carbohydrates, proteins, and fats—that the
body needs for energy and proper growth, metabolism, and function. They are called
“macro” because we need these nutrients in large quantities compared to the micronutrients
(vitamins and minerals), which are needed in smaller quantities. In this
section I will explain the various macronutrients, recommended intakes, and the best
food sources.
Macronutrients provide us with calories as follows:
Carbohydrate: 4 calories per gram
Protein: 4 calories per gram
Fat: 9 calories per gram
For example:
If a food product contains 10 g of carbohydrate, 2 g of protein, and 1 g of fat per serving,
it would provide 10 × 4 = 40 calories from carbohydrate, 2 × 4 = 8 calories from
protein, and 1 × 9 = 9 calories from fat for a total calorie count of 57 calories per serving.
PROTEIN
Protein is a necessary component for building, maintenance, and repair of many body
systems and processes, including:
• Production of collagen and keratin, which are the structural components of bones, teeth,
hair, and the outer layer of skin; they help maintain the structure of blood vessels
• Manufacture of hormones, such as insulin and thyroid hormone
• Production of enzymes that control chemical reactions in the body
• Proper immune function—production of antibodies, white blood cells, and other
immune factors
• Transportation of oxygen, vitamins, and minerals to target cells throughout the body• Source of energy—the liver can use protein to make glucose when there is not enough
carbohydrate available, such as when you skip a meal or follow a low-carb diet.
Food Sources
Protein is found in animal products, nuts, legumes, and, to a lesser extent, in fruits
and vegetables. When we eat protein the body breaks it down into amino acids, some
of which are called essential because they must be provided by the food we eat.
Others that can be produced by the body are called non-essential.
Protein from animal sources contains all of the essential amino acids. Therefore,
your best sources of lean protein are chicken, turkey, fi sh, and eggs. Choose freerange
and organic wherever possible to reduce ingesting harmful hormones and
chemicals.
Plant proteins do not contain all the essential amino acids and are considered
incomplete proteins. It is possible, though, to combine various plant proteins to get all
the essential amino acids. For example, eating oats, lentils, and sunfl ower seeds either
together or separately throughout the day provides all the essential amino acids. You
could also combine whole-wheat pasta with white kidney beans or tofu with brown
rice to get all the necessary amino acids. It just requires careful meal planning.
There are certain advantages of eating plant over animal proteins—they provide
fi bre and phytochemicals (antioxidants), do not contain saturated fat, and
may play a role in disease prevention. Soy protein, for example, has been shown to
signifi cantly lower cholesterol and triglyceride levels, and protect against bone loss.
A number of studies have found lower risk of chronic disease in those who eat a
plant-based diet.
The Institute of Medicine recommends ranges for macronutrient intake that are
associated with a reduced risk of chronic disease while providing adequate intake
of essential nutrients. They suggest that adults get 45–65 percent of calories from
carbohydrates, 20–35 percent from fat, and 10–35 percent from protein. Ranges for
children are similar, except that infants and younger children need a slightly higher
proportion of fat (25–40 percent).
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are the body’s main source of fuel—glucose, which is needed by every
cell in our body. They also provide valuable nutrients (vitamins, minerals, and essential
fatty acids) and fi bre, which is important for intestinal health.
Food Sources
There are two classes of carbohydrates—simple and complex. Simple carbohydrates
include naturally occurring sugars in milk and fruit, and refi ned sugars (granulated
sugar). There is a major difference among these simple carbohydrates: fruits offer
a range of nutrients and fi bre, while refi ned sugars provide empty calories and lack
nutritional value. Excess sugar consumption is linked to dental caries, obesity, insulin
resistance, high triglycerides, low HDL (good) cholesterol, and compromised immune
function. The World Health Organization recommends reducing sugar intake to below
10 percent of total calories. Aside from candy and baked goods, sugar is also found in
pop, condiments (ketchup, barbecue sauces), juices, ice cream, and other sweets.
Complex carbohydrates include starches and indigestible dietary fi bre. Starches
are found in bread, pasta, rice, beans, and some vegetables. Today many of our
starches are refi ned and processed, which strips the food of its fi bre and nutrients. For
example, white bread, pasta, and rice are much less nutritious, so choose the brown
or whole-grain products.
Dietary fi bre is found in fruits, vegetables, beans, and the indigestible parts of
whole grains such as wheat and oat bran. In addition to supporting intestinal health
and proper elimination, fi bre also improves blood sugar balance, lowers cholesterol,
reduces the risk of colon and breast cancer, and plays a role in weight management.
The recommended intake of fi bre for adults 50 years and younger is 38 g for
men and 25 g for women; for men and women over 50 it is 30 and 21 g per day,
respectively, due to decreased food consumption. Sadly, most people get only onethird
to one-half of the recommended amount. To boost fi bre intake, incorporate
more raw vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and legumes in your diet and consider a
fi bre supplement.
Glycemic Index
The glycemic index (GI) is a scale that measures how quickly carbohydrates are broken
down into sugar. Those that are broken down quickly—such as simple carbohydrates
and refi ned starches—have a high GI. Foods that are broken down slowly—such as
most vegetables, fruits, and unprocessed grains—have a low GI.
Numerous studies have linked high-GI diets to obesity, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes,
and increased risk of heart disease. Eating high-GI foods can lead to blood sugar
imbalances that may result in fatigue, increased appetite, and food cravings. For these
reasons, it is best to minimize high-GI foods and maximize your intake of low-GI foods.
See Appendix B for more information on the GI and the rating for common foods.
FATS
“Fat” has become a negative word as it is associated with obesity, yet we do need a
certain amount of fat in our diets and on our bodies. The point to keep in mind is that
there are good fats and bad fats.
The good fats are the unsaturated fats, namely, the monounsaturated fats (olive,
canola, and peanut oil) and polyunsaturated fats. The polyunsaturated fats provide
us with essential fatty acids (EFAs), which are broken down into two groups:
• Omega-6 fatty acids: Linoleic acid (LA), which is converted into gamma-linolenic
acid (GLA) and arachidonic acid (AA)
• Omega-3 fatty acids: Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), which is converted into eicosapentaenoic
acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)
The body cannot make EFAs, so they must be obtained through diet or supplementation.
They are essential for many body processes and functions, including:
• Growth and development of brain, nervous system, adrenal glands, sex organs, inner
ear, and eyes
• Energy (fat is the most concentrated source of energy)
• Absorbing fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, K, and carotenoids)
• Maintaining cell membrane integrity
• Regulation of cell processes such as gene activation and expression, enzyme function,
and fat oxidation
• Production of hormones and chemical messengers
Food Sources
Here is a breakdown of the EFAs and their sources:
• LA: Found in vegetable oils such as saffl ower, evening primrose, sunfl ower, corn,
hemp, canola, and olive oil.
• GLA: Found in borage, blackcurrant, and evening primrose oils.
• AA: Found in meat and eggs. We get adequate AA through diet. Too much of this
fat is not good, as it causes infl ammation.
• ALA: Found in fl axseed and hemp oil and, to a lesser extent, in nuts, green leafy
vegetables, wheat germ, and blackcurrant seeds.
• EPA and DHA: Found in fatty fi sh, such as salmon, mackerel, herring, cod, sardines,
and tuna.
There is great controversy over what constitutes the optimal dietary intake ratio of
omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids. It is estimated that we currently get around 15:1,
whereas leading EFA authorities recommend a ratio closer to 4:1 or even 2:1.
The Institute of Medicine has set an adequate intake level for linoleic acid for
adults 19–50 years of age at 17 g/day for men and 12 g/day for women; alpha-linolenic
acid at 1.6 g/day for men and 1.1 g/day for women. These levels are lower for
younger and older individuals.
Rather than trying to calculate the perfect ratio or intake, aim to have more
omega-3s (fi sh, fl axseed, hemp, and fi sh oils) and GLA (borage, blackcurrant, or
primrose oil) from diet and/or supplements, as these are the benefi cial fats that are
commonly defi cient.
Diets rich in the omega-3 fatty acids offer cardio protection by lowering blood
cholesterol and triglyceride levels, reducing blood clotting, and reducing the risk of
heart attack and sudden death. These fats also reduce infl ammation and are helpful
for arthritis and other infl ammatory disorders. GLA also reduces infl ammation, and
prevents clotting, dilates blood vessels, improves skin health, and benefi ts those with
diabetes and arthritis.

SATURATED FATS
Saturated fats are found in animal products such as meat, poultry, milk, cheese, butter,
and lard, as well as in tropical oils (such as palm, palm kernel, and coconut oil)
and foods made from these oils. These fats are high in cholesterol and linked to heart
disease, high cholesterol, obesity, and cancers of the breast, colon, and prostate.
Most people get 38 percent or more of the day’s calories from fat while health
authorities suggest no more than 20–35 percent of which less than 10 percent comes
from saturated fat. To cut your intake of saturated fat, trim fat and skin from meat,
choose lean poultry over red meat, and low-fat cheese and dairy (cottage cheese, feta,
and hard cheeses have less fat). Butter is fi ne in moderation (see sidebar).
BUTTER VERSUS MARGARINE
For years margarine was considered to be a healthier alternative to butter, however
most margarines contain hydrogenated oils (trans fats), which are artifi cial processed
fats linked to heart disease and cancer. The exception is non-hydrogenated margarines,
such as Becel, which contain benefi cial plant sterols that can help lower cholesterol.
While butter contains saturated fats, they are short-chain saturates, which are easily
digested and provide a source of useable energy. Butter also contains nutrients: lecithin,
vitamins A and E, and selenium. So the bottom line is: Choose butter or a non-hydrogenated
margarine.
TRANS FATS
Trans fatty acids are naturally found in small amounts in animal products; however,
the majority of trans fats in our diet come from the artifi cial form. Trans fats are created
when oils undergo a chemical process called hydrogenation, which solidifi es
them. This is the process that makes vegetable oil into margarine. Trans fat is also
found in cookies, crackers, french fries, baked goods, and other snack foods.
When trans fats were fi rst introduced into our food supply, they were thought
to be a healthier alternative to saturated fats. Many years later this was found to be
false. Trans fats elevate cholesterol levels, increasing the risk for heart disease and
heart attack, and are also linked to cancer, particularly breast cancer. The Institute
of Medicine has stated that there is no safe limit for trans fats in the diet and that
we should reduce consumption of these dangerous fats. Food companies have been
making efforts in this area. You will now see many packaged foods labelled “trans
fat free.”
CHOLESTEROL
Cholesterol is a waxy substance found in the fats (lipids) in our blood. It is manufactured
in the liver and also obtained from consuming saturated and trans fats.
Cholesterol is not all bad—the body requires it to produce sex hormones, maintain
cell membranes, and for a healthy nervous system.

Aside from diet, cholesterol levels can be elevated by family history, lack of activity,
and liver disorders, and cholesterol consumption increases the risk of heart
disease.
As with fats, there is good and bad when it comes to cholesterol. The good
cholesterol is HDL (high-density lipoproteins) and the bad is LDL (low-density lipoproteins).
LDL cholesterol can build up in the artery walls of the brain and heart,
narrowing the passageways for blood fl ow, a process known as atherosclerosis, the
precursor to heart disease and stroke.
HDL cholesterol is called good cholesterol because it picks up the LDL deposited
in the arteries and transports it to the liver to be broken down and eliminated.
To lower LDL and raise HDL levels, exercise regularly, minimize saturated fats,
avoid trans fats, and don’t smoke (smoking lowers HDL).
TRIGLYCERIDES
Triglycerides (TG) are the chemical form in which most fats exist in food (both animal
and plant fats). They are also present in the blood along with cholesterol.
A diet that is high in fat, sugar, refi ned carbohydrates, and alcohol can elevate
TGs. Overeating also raises TG because excess calories are converted to fat in the
liver and then into TG to be transported in the blood. High levels of triglycerides are
associated with heart disease and diabetes. It is possible for triglycerides to be high
even when blood cholesterol is normal, so get your levels checked regularly. In most
cases, TG levels can be effectively managed with diet and exercise.
SUMMARY
In this section we learned that our bodies need a balance of quality protein, carbohydrates,
and fats. These macronutrients provide us with the energy and nutrients
needed for proper growth, development, and many body processes. In a later chapter
I will outline principles for a healthy diet—my top recommendations for a nutritional
plan for optimal health and disease prevention.

The Acai Berry was recently proclaimed the world’s greatest super food. Rumors have it that this little purple berry from the Amazon can fight off heart attacks 10 times better than red wine–and guess what, studies have backed up some of these suggestions. Today, the Acai Berry is not only one of the world’s leading solution to anti-aging, it’s also one of the most effective fruits that aid in weight loss. Read through the passages below to find out why.

Getting Rid of Toxins Includes Getting Rid of Bad Cholesterol
We take in a gargantuan amount of trans fat from the fast food we eat everyday. Some blame it on our fast paced lifestyle, while others have enough common sense to recognize that these burgers and fries are highly addictive–and we end up eating them when we do have the time to prepare healthier dishes. Imagine gulping down an average of 5 glasses of soda a day, two burgers, two slices (at least) of pizza, and bags and bags of potato chips, while we languidly sit in front of the computer screen or in front of the TV. Even without batting an eyelash, a five-year-old can tell you that you’ll end up looking like a blimp and clogging your arteries if you don’t act on it soon.

You can either kill yourself by shocking your body into jogging an hour a day, or take something in that can aid in the fat burning process. While you will still need to have a proper exercise routine, acai berry supplements and products can help aid in the process.

Effectiveness of Acai Berries Compared To Other Fruits
Basically, an acai berry product works in the same way any fruit product would work–only better. Like most fruits like grapes and blueberries, an acai berry contains antioxidants, anthocyanins, vitamins and minerals. Antioxidants can be found in any fruit, and it helps fight off the toxins or free radicals we acquire through daily stress. When these free radicals get out of proportion and take over our bodies, they eventually cause the growth of cancer cells. A regular intake of quality acai berry juice and supplements has been shown to prevent this in some cases. Acai berries contain twice the antioxidants found in blueberries, which were the current reigning wonder fruits before the acai berries’ discovery.

Anthocyanins, on the other hand, are the substances found in red wine that fight off heart failures due to bad fat or cholesterol. Red wine, although it does aid in the fat absorption, still has slightly negative health effects because it’s alcohol. Acai berry, aside from being non-alcoholic, offers ten times the amount of anthocyanins found in red wine. So aside from dodging the unhealthy side effects, acai berries are also essentially more effective than grapes in red wine.

Important Information About Acai Berry
Only 10% of the acai berry fruit is actually beneficial for anti-aging and weight loss: the pulp and the skin. About 90% of acai berries are seeds, which are not digestible and are used only for jewelry or fuel. Acai berries are also high in fat, which means they spoil easily. It’s nearly impossible to effectively import them to other countries, except when frozen or freeze dried. When you’re buying supplements and juices made from acai berries, make sure that you find “frozen” or “freeze dried” on the labels. It’s also pretty useless to buy “extracts” of this fruit alone, because you would want the full benefits of acai berries, not just parts of it.

Long-term supplementation with vitamin E and vitamin C may not prevent cancer, according to data from the Physician’s Health Study II that was presented at the American Association for Cancer Research’s Seventh Annual International Conference in Washington, D.C. on November 16, 2008.[1]

The role of diet in cancer incidence remains a major focus among researchers, as it is becoming more evident that diet may reduce the risk of developing certain types of cancers. For example, vitamin D appears to have a protective effect against pancreatic cancer and also colorectal adenomas.[2][3] In addition, several studies have linked vitamin E, selenium, and lycopene with a reduction in prostate cancer. However, it has also been discovered that supplementation with specific vitamins and minerals often does not have the same protective role as obtaining the nutrients from foods. In other words, there is still much to be learned about the role of nutrients in the prevention of cancer.

The Physician’s Health Study II is a large-scale, long-term, randomized clinical trial involving over 14,000 physicians over the age of 50. The physicians were given either a) 400 IU of vitamin E every other day or placebo or b) 500 mg of vitamin C daily or placebo and were then followed for up to 10 years. The primary endpoint of the vitamin C group was the development of cancer. The primary endpoint of the vitamin E group was the development of prostate cancer, with a secondary endpoint being the development of any type of cancer.

After nearly 10 years of supplementation, there was no evidence that vitamin E or vitamin C played a protective role against cancer. Thus far, there have been 1,929 cancer cases in the group, including 1,013 cases of prostate cancer. The researchers concluded that neither vitamin E nor vitamin C offers any beneficial effect against cancer.

Research in this field is ongoing; however, the results from this study indicate that vitamin supplements may not provide the same benefits as vitamins included as part of a healthy, balanced diet.

References:

[1] Buring JE, Sesso HD, Gaziano JM, et al. A randomized factorial trial of vitamins E and C in the prevention of cancer in men: the Physicians’ Health Study II. Proceedings from American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting. Abstract #PR-1.

[2] Skinner HG, Michaud DS, Giovannucci E, Willett WC, Colditz GA, Fuchs CS. Vitamin D Intake and the Risk for Pancreatic Cancer in Two Cohort Studies. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers, and Prevention. 2006;15:1688-95.

[3] Wei MY, Garland CF, Gorham ED. Vitamin D and prevention of colorectal adenoma: A meta-analysis. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 2008;17(11):2958-2969.

I woke up with a sore throat and a bad attitude last week.

The sore throat was the first symptom, followed soon after by a runny nose and a lot of sneezing. And the raunchy mood resulted when I realized I was coming down with my second cold in less than a month.

I do not have time to be sick!

I went months without any kind of cold, and then to have two within weeks of each other, well, it was very discouraging.

So I immediately began doubling my daily intake of Emergen-C. Normally I take a packet in the morning and a packet at night. Sometimes, after a run of more than six miles or so, I take a packet before and after the run to deal with an occasional post-run headache.

By the second day, the cold was worse, but my resolve to beat it remained. I took six packets a day, in bottles of water, and by the fourth day, the cold had gotten much better. Six days after that first sore throat, I am almost symptom-free.

As I was driving home one night this week, I heard a radio commercial for a vitamin C supplement. What I found interesting is that it cited two studies that found higher doses of vitamin C can lengthen your life, help with PMS, and are a natural anti-inflammatory. Seriously, can this be true? And was it possible to overdose on vitamin C?
So I did some research. At first, I was more confused than ever as different studies and scientists offered different opinions.

But I did find some of what I was looking for. First, if you take more vitamin C than your body needs, you will just get rid of it.

“You really can’t overdose on water-soluble vitamins,” said Ken Hollen of Diet and Sport Nutrition, who has become my go-to guy on supplements. “What will happen is that you will get diarrhea.”

A person would need to take 10,000 to 13,000 mg to get to that point. I was taking six packets of Emergen-C, which has a lot of other vitamins and minerals in it, but that means I was taking 6,000 mg of vitamin C. (In fact, one article I found said it’s best to take vitamin C in conjunction with other vitamins or nutrients because of the synergistic effect that mimics whole food and reduces negative side effects.)

Another article made the point that megadosing any vitamin or mineral can throw your system out of balance, so you should consult a doctor or nutritionist to make sure you don’t create a different problem for yourself.

Hollen also pointed out, as did two of the articles I read, that taking vitamin C with calcium ascorbate can buffer your stomach and make sure you don’t increase the acidity of your system. Unfortunately, many supplements, including my beloved Emergen-C, use ascorbic acid, which can cause increased acidity.

As for all of those fabulous things that infomercial said vitamin C could do for you, there are studies that show significant impacts on health by increasing the intake of vitamin C. The one I was most interested in was the anti-inflammatory properties. Hollen explained to me that because vitamin C is found in the fluid around the joints and ligaments, it removes some of the inflammatory properties, but it’s not significant enough to be taken for that purpose alone.

Interestingly, nearly all of the articles and studies I read said increasing vitamin C even a little bit would most likely make most people feel better.

Acai berry has great nutritional values. Food supplements containing Acai berry especially Extreme Acai Berry, is an ideal move to get these benefits. There are number of reasons and benefits in taking Extreme Acai Berry.

1. Helps prevent premature aging- because of antioxidant content in Acai berry, taking supplements can help prevent the irritating signs of aging.

2. Flush out toxic materials from the digestive tracts and regulate body weights-it has good amount of dietary fibers

3. Increased energy-it contains organic vegetable protein and carbohydrates

4. Helps lower bad cholesterol while retaining good cholesterol- due to high fiber content, it can help prevents cardiovascular disorder like hardening of the muscles and arteries which are the prime causes of death among people who have hypertension, this can now prevented by taking extreme acai berry supplements. The berries contained omega fatty acids also which is good for the proper functioning of the heart

5. It helps cure Acne and Pimples-for individuals who are long suffering for these perennial facial problems which sometimes affected self esteem and self confidence, acai berry seems to be a miracle cure for this problems. It has a powerful antioxidant and cleansing properties. It is anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial which are the number one causes of acne and pimples.

6. It contains high level of Glucosamine-a natural substance that works well with essential fatty acids which profoundly help building health cartilage necessary for the proper functioning of muscle joints therefore preventing osteoporosis.

7. Help ease excruciating menstrual cramps-Trace mineral contents in Acai, provide good sources for cleaning the uterus lining of females therefore reducing contraction and pain during menstrual cycle.

8. Over all wellness-the powerful vitamins and minerals including vitamin B-complex, calcium, iron, potassium, phytochemicals and fibers provide the human body with a perfect balance in nutrition. It helps improve good sleep, it minimizes the level of stress and helps prevent depression

The greatness of Acai berry provides the world with a unique outlet of wellness it even caught the attention of world-famous personalities like Oprah Winfrey and health guru Dr. Nichols Perricone. It only provides an impression that this little fruit from the Amazon rain forest offers a miracle for a healthy and balanced lifestyle. Start incorporating Acai berry supplements in your diet today. You can experience all of the benefits of this wonderful purplish fruits through Extreme Acai Berry supplements, the famous brand accepted by number of consumers, and see the difference with in two weeks of continued use. It was reported with no side effects.

WESTON, Fla., Sep 04, 2008 (BUSINESS WIRE) — Kidz-Med Inc. (the Company), a subsidiary of American Scientific Resources, Inc. (Pink Sheets:ASFX), today announced that they have introduced an all natural children’s multivitamin to their health and safety product line on www.kidzmed.com. The vitamin and supplement business in the United States alone makes up a $21.2 billion market according to the Nutrition Business Journal.
Dr. Christopher F. Tirotta, CEO of American Scientific Resources, Inc. stated, “Due to the overwhelming demand in the nutraceutical market, we strongly believe that the addition of this multivitamin–as well as other future consumables–will obtain profitability.”
Drs Country Health, a pioneer in developing all natural nutraceuticals for children and adults, manufactures the all-natural children’s multivitamin. Kidz-Med’s Children’s Chewable 100% All Natural Multi Vitamin has absolutely no sugar, no dyes, no artificial additives and no preservatives. The unique blend has 100% of the 13 essential Recommended Daily Allowances (RDA’s) of vitamins and minerals. This complete multi vitamin will give a child, ages 2-12, the proper nutrition according to RDA guidelines to ensure optimum health, strength and development. For a two- month supply, the product retails for $12.95.
The company has strategically aligned with major partners that have enormous influence to position it as a recognizable distributor. By offering consumers a diversified product line, the Company further enhances its credibility and marketability.
Kidz-Med already distributes their flagship product, the Thermofocus 5-in-1 non- contact thermometer, in 6,000 nationwide Walgreens Drug Stores, and is currently filling a Thermofocus PO for a renowned worldwide specialty baby retailer.
The Thermofocus 5-in-1 thermometer can be seen on YouTube.com, and in the Pittsburgh Tribune-Review. It has also been profiled at Thingamababy.com, and most recently, WFMY-TV CBS-News 2, Greensboro, NC ( http://www.digtriad.com/news/features/article.aspx?storyid=109558&cat id=216). (Due to its length, this URL may need to be copied/pasted into your Internet browser’s address field. Remove the extra space if one exists.)
About Kidz-Med, Inc.
A division of American Scientific Resources, Inc., Kidz-Med, Inc., was founded in 1993 by Dr. Christopher F. Tirotta to create children’s pre-operative educational videos “A Hospital Trip With Dr. Bip” and “Dr. Bip’s New Baby Tips”. Today, Kidz-Med, Inc. is leading the pediatric and children’s health and safety products industry in innovation by providing the most revolutionary patented family-friendly products sourced from around the globe to help keep children safe and parents reassured. For additional information, visit www.kidzmed.com or the corporate web site, www.americansci.com.
Safe Harbor
This release may contain forward-looking statements within the meaning of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995. Statements contained in this release that are not historical facts may be deemed to be forward-looking statements. Investors are cautioned that forward-looking statements are inherently uncertain. Actual performance and results may differ materially from that projected or suggested herein due to certain risks and uncertainties including, without limitation, ability to obtain financing and regulatory and shareholder approvals for anticipated actions.
SOURCE: American Scientific Resources, Inc.
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Ronald Garner
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ron@audiostocks.com

Copyright Business Wire 2008

Bausch & Lomb, the eye health company dedicated to perfecting vision and enhancing life, has unveiled a groundbreaking range of vitamin and mineral supplements developed to help preserve eye health.

PreserVision Soft Gels by Bausch & Lomb are high potency antioxidant supplements developed from the only formulation tested in a 10-year eye health study. Conducted by the US National Eye Institute, the study monitored health in over 4,000 50-80 year-old participants, and found that the supplements could be effective in preserving eye health in those susceptible to age-related macular degeneration (AMD).

AMD is a disease of the macular – the central part of the eye which allows a person to see fine detail, and gradually destroys the sharp, central vision which is needed to see objects clearly. The most prevalent cause of vision loss in the western world, AMD is thought to affect over three million people in the UK alone – more than five per cent of the population.

Recommended by leading ophthalmologists in the UK, PreserVision Soft Gels provide antioxidant vitamins and minerals at levels not normally achievable through diet alone.

Andrew Lotery, Professor of Ophthalmology at the University of Southampton, said: “Oral treatment of AMD through supplementation is a proven and cost effective method of reducing progression of the disease.

“However, not all vitamin supplements are the same. Low doses of minerals such as vitamins C and E, zinc and beta-carotene have a negligible effect when compared to the high dose AREDS formulation. Vitamin therapy should be seen as a high priority when assessing patients in the early stages of AMD.”

The two-a-day PreserVision Soft Gels are available in two easy-to-swallow formulations – Original and Lutein. PreserVision Original provides high levels of the antioxidants beta-carotene3, vitamins C and E and zinc.

PreserVision Lutein is an advanced formulation containing the same combination of vitamins C, E and zinc, but with lutein as a replacement for beta-carotene. Lutein, which occurs naturally in the retina, is believed to function both as an antioxidant and a filter of harmful blue light. PreserVision Lutein can be recommended to all users, including smokers.

The PreserVision Soft Gels range complements the established PreserVision Tablets supplement, which contains the same quantity of the antioxidants vitamins and minerals as the Original Soft Gels formulation, but in a four-a-day tablet form.

For further information about Bausch & Lomb’s PreserVision, log on to Preservision.co.uk.

PreserVision Original and Lutein Soft Gels and PreserVision tablets are available over the counter at most Boots stores, and pharmacies, priced at £14.95 (RRP) for 60 Soft Gels.