Vitamin Information Center

Causation
HRISTINA VLAJINAC
Institute of Epidemiology, School of Medicine,
University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
kristiv@eunet.yu
Synonyms
Causality
Definition
A cause of a disease can be defined as an event, condition,
or characteristic that plays an essential role in producing
an occurrence of the disease (Rothman 1986).
The most important aim of epidemiology is to identify
the causes and the  risk factors of a disease, and to
improve public health by reducing or eliminating exposure
to these factors.
Basic Characteristics
Epidemiological – EcologicalModels
A disease is a result of the  interaction of host factors
and the environment. Several models have been developed
in order to depict the ways in which these interactions
influence the occurrence of the disease: the triangle,
the wheel, and the web of causation.
The triangle – Thismodel consists of three components,
 agent, host, and environment, which are in a kind of
dynamic equilibrium. Change in any of these components
will alter an existing equilibrium and increase or
decrease the frequency of the disease. This model has
been the most frequently applied to infectious diseases
in which infectious organismswere separated from other
environmental factors and identified as agents.
For diseases that have not been linked to specific agents,
two other models have been developed.
The Wheel – In this model, the host, with its genetic
make-up as its core, is presented as the hub of the
wheel, surrounded with the environment, which is separated
into biological, social and physical components.
This separation is artificial since these three parts of the
environment are closely interrelated with one another
and with host factors.
The Web – The web model emphasizes the concept that
effects never depend on single causes but develop as the
result of causal chains, which make the web. Each link
in the web is the result of antecedents, and breaking
of the web at any level can prevent occurrence of the
disease. This means that full knowledge of etiology is
not needed for effective disease prevention and control.
(Mausner, Kramer 1985; Bhopal 2002)
Search for Causal Relationship
There are two approaches to testing hypotheses about
causes of disease, experimental and observational.
Experimental study can establish the causal relationship
of a factor with a disease more conclusively, but
since experiments in epidemiology are performed on
humans, for ethical reasons the effects of some possible
causal factors cannot be investigated directly.
Observational studies have therefore been providing the
major contribution to the understanding of many diseases.
The first step in an investigation of causal relationship
is to see whether there is an  association between
a disease and a postulated causal factor. If an association
exists, it does not necessarily mean that it is
a causal one. It can be: a) spurious ( spurious association),
b) secondary ( secondary association), or c)
causal. Before an association is assessed for the possibility
that it is causal, other alternative explanations,
such as chance, selection bias, information bias, and
confounding, have to be excluded.
A Concept of Necessary and Sufficient Cause
“A causal factor whose presence is required for the
occurrence of the effect” (Last 2001), that is, without
which the disease never develops, is the necessary
cause. Sufficient cause is a “minimum set of conditions,
factors or events needed to produce a given outcome;
minimal implies that none of the conditions or events is
superfluous” (Rothman 1986). A sufficient cause is not
usually a single factor, but often comprises several components
– component causes or contributing causes.
A disease can have several sufficient causes and these
may have one or more contributing causes in common.
Types of Causal Relationship A causal factor can be
either necessary or sufficient, both, or neither:
1. Necessary and sufficient
A factor can be both necessary and sufficient, which
means that the disease never develops without that factor,
and that factor always produces the development
of the disease. This type of causal relationship occurs
rarely. For example, a person who has three copies of
chromosome 21 instead of two will inevitably be mentally
retarded – Down’s syndrome (Bhopal 2002).
2. Necessary but not sufficient
The factor, although necessary, cannot produce the disease
without the presence of some other factors, called
component or contributory causes. For clinically manifest
tuberculosis, in addition to the bacillus, which is
the necessary cause, contributing causes such as poor
nutritional and socio-economic conditions are needed.
3. Sufficient but not necessary
Although sufficient for producing the disease, the factor
(usually more than one) is not necessary because there
are some other factors that can also produce the disease.
Either radiation exposure or benzene exposure can
produce leukemia independently of each other (Gordis
2004).
4. Neither sufficient nor necessary
Smoking is a cause of lung cancer but not everyonewho
smokes develops this type of cancer and not everyone
who develops lung cancer has smoked.
Guidelines for Causal Reasoning in Epidemiology
Although epidemiologic evidence by itself is insufficient
to establish causality, Bradford Hill (Hill, 1965)
suggested that the following attributes (criteria) of an
association be considered in assessment of the possibility
that it is a causal one.
1. Strength of the association – The strength of association
is measured by the relative risk (odds ratio), that is
the ratio of disease rates for those exposed and those not
exposed to the hypothesized causal factor. The stronger
the association, the more likely it is that the relation is
causal. However, it does not mean that a weak association
cannot be judged to be a causal one. “The strength
of an association is not a biologically consistent feature,
but rather a characteristic that depends on the relative
prevalence of other causes” (Rothman, 1986).
2. Dose-response relationship – A dose-response is
established when, with increasing level of exposure
(“dose” or duration), the risk of disease also increases.
The absence of a dose-response relationship does not
rule out the possibility of causal association since, for
some causes, a threshold may exist and a disease may
not develop unless a certain level of exposure is present.
3. Consistency of the association – A cause-effect relationship
is supported when similar results are obtained
in a number of studies performed in various populations
or population groups, by different investigators,
and with different methodology. The causal relationship
might not be found in some studies because “the
effect of a causal agent cannot occur unless the component
causes act, or have already acted, to complete
a sufficient cause” (Rothman 1986).
4. Temporality – Exposure to the postulated causal factor
must precede the onset of disease by a period of
time consistent with the proposed biologic mechanism
( induction,  incubation,  latency). In some diseases,
especially chronic and those with a long period
of latency, temporality cannot always be easy to establish.
Although the only indispensable attribute among
all Hill’s conditions, a temporally correct association
between two events does not necessarily mean that it is
that of cause and effect. They could both be generated
by the same factor.
5. Biologic plausibility – The existence of a causeeffect
relationship is enhanced if it is coherent with the
current body of biologic knowledge. This, of course,
depends on the state of scientific information at a given
time. An association that is biologically implausible at
one time may eventually prove to be plausible.
6. Experimental evidence – Causal understanding can
be greatly advanced by “in-vivo” and animal experiments,
but data obtained in that way must be integrated
with observations in the human population. Because of
ethical reasons, experimental evidence is seldom from
the human population. However, evidence for a causal
relationship is supported if reduction or elimination of
exposure to a certain factor (postulated causal factor) is
related to decline of disease frequency.
7. Coherence – Coherence implies that a cause-effect
interpretation of an association does not conflict with
the generally known facts of the natural history and
biology of the disease.
8. Specificity of the association – An association is
specific when a certain exposure is associated with
only one disease. Taking into account the multifactorial
nature of disease and the fact that one factor can
cause more than one disease, the specificity is the least
important criterion to satisfy, and “should be probably
deleted from the list” (Gordis 2004).
In making decisions about causation, the list of criteria
presented above should be considered only as guidelines.
If temporality is viewed as part of the definition
of causation, “there is no necessary or sufficient criterion
for determining whether an observed association is
causal” (Rothman, Greenland 1998; Rothman, Greenland
2005). Decisions about causation must always
remain a matter of judgment based on all available evidence
“achievable through hypothesis generation and
testing, with data interpreted using a logical framework
of analysis, which draws on multidisciplinary perspectives”
(Bhopal 2002).
Hill himself pointed out that these “viewpoints” cannot
be used as criteria for causal inference, but can help
to make a judgment, and to act on the premise that
a causal relationship exists rather than awaiting further
evidence: “All scientific work is incomplete – whether it
be observational or experimental. All scientific work is
liable to be upset or modified by advancing knowledge.
That does not confer upon us a freedom to ignore the
knowledge we already have, or to postpone the action
that it appears to demand at a given time”.
Most definitions are taken from the last edition of Last’s
Dictionary of Epidemiology (Last, 2001).We are much
obliged to Professor Last for his kind consent.
Cross-References
 Agent (of Disease)
 Association
 Incubation
 Induction
 Interaction
 Latency
 Risk Factor
 Secondary Association
 Spurious Association
References
Bhopal R (2002) Concepts of Epidemiology: An integrated introduction
to the ideas, theories, principles and methods of epidemiology.
Oxford University Press, Oxford
Gordis L (2004) Epidemiology. Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia
Hill B (1965) The environment and disease: Association or causation.
Proc Roy Soc Med 58:295–300
Last J (2001) A Dictionary of Epidemiology, 4th edn. Oxford
University Press, New York
Mausner J, Kramer S (1985) Epidemiology. WB Saunders,
Philadelphia
Rothman K (1986) Modern Epidemiology. Little Brown, Boston
Rothman K, Greenland S (1998) Modern Epidemiology, 2nd edn.
Lippincott – Raven Publishers, Philadelphia
Rothman K, Greenland S (2005) Basic Concept. In: Ahrens W,
Pigeot I (ed) Handbook of Epidemiology. Springer, Berlin,
pp 45–

Case Control Studies
Definition
Studying infrequent events, such as death from cancer,
using randomized clinical trials or other controlled
prospective studies requires that large populations be
tracked for long periods in order to observe disease
development. Case-control studies use patients who
already have a disease or other condition and look back
to see if there are characteristics of these patients that
differ from those who don’t have the disease. The casecontrol
study provides a much cheaper and quicker
study of risk factors. If the evidence found is convincing
enough, then resources can be allocated to more “credible”
and comprehensive studies. The case-control study
begins with the identification of an outcome or effect
and a number of potential causative factors. A group
of cases which exhibit the outcome under investigation
is selected. A number of control subjects (or controls)
who do not exhibit the outcome or effect under investigation
are then chosen. These controls should match the
cases as closely as possible with respect to the non-risk
variables; this allows the proposed non-risk variables to
be ignored in the analysis. Sometimes more than one
control group is used. The case and control groups are
then compared for the proposed causal factors, and statistical
analysis is used to estimate the strength of association
of each factor with the studied outcome.
Case-control studies are a valuable investigative tool,
providing rapid results at low cost, but caution should
be exercised unless results are confirmed by other, more
robust evidence.

Canonical Correlation Analysis
Definition
A canonical correlation analysis is a multivariate statistical
technique that investigates the relationships
between two (or more) sets of variables. In most applications,
however, the two sets are not treated symmetrically;
rather, one set is the predictor set, which is
the set of independent variables, and the other set is
the response set, which is the set of dependent variables.
For example, one may want to study the relationship
of various risk factors to the development of
a group of symptoms; compute the (simultaneous) relationship
between three measures of scholastic ability
with five measures of success in school; or investigate
the relationship between two predictors of social mobility
based on interviews, with actual subsequent social
mobility measured by four different indicators. The
underlying principle is to develop two linear combinations
(i. e., canonical variables) of variables in each set
(both dependent and independent if such a distinction is
made) that best explain the variation in the variables of
the other set, i. e. such that the correlation between the
composite variates is maximized.

Active Surveillance
Definition
In this context active surveillance means that department
of health officials proactively call physicians’
offices to ask if they have identified any cases of
a particular disease; in this instance, the information
required is detailed because the disease is often not
well understood and the surveillance system provides
a means of collecting information that may help identify
its causes or risk factors. Active surveillance is more
expensive than passive surveillance and it is typically
reserved for relatively infrequent but important infections
or events.

Active Surveillance
Definition
In this context active surveillance means that department of health officials proactively call physicians’ offices to ask if they have identified any cases of a particular disease; in this instance, the information required is detailed because the disease is often not well understood and the ► surveillance system provides a means of collecting information that may help identify its causes or risk factors. Active surveillance is more expensive than ► passive surveillance and it is typically reserved for relatively infrequent but important infections or events.

We may make uneasy jokes about it, but Alzheimer’s disease is something we all dread. It’s common. Some 4.5 million Americans have it, and many more have cognitive impairment that may be an early sign of it. And it sometimes seems like it’s almost unavoidable. The biggest risk factor for developing Alzheimer’s is simply getting older. Most people diagnosed with it are age 65 or older, and by the time you’re 85, you have a one-in-two chance of having it.

But Alzheimer’s is less inevitable than you might fear, with evidence mounting that diet, exercise and nutritional supplements all play a role in its prevention. New research also suggests that Alzheimer’s takes a longer time to develop than previously thought, with early brain changes seen in middle age. So the best advice for prevention is to start early—by age 50– and stay at it, especially if you have a family history of the disease. But even people in their 60s, 70s and 80s can benefit tremendously from our expert recommendations, which follow below.

WHAT IS ALZHEIMER’S ANYWAY?

We know that Alzheimer’s is a build-up of two types of proteins in the brain—“plaques”, which are deposits of the protein beta-amyloid that accumulate in the space between nerve cells, and “tangles”, deposits of the protein tau that accumulate inside of nerve cells. This protein pile-up leads to reduced levels of neurotransmitters, interferes with cells’ ability to communicate with each other, and makes it difficult for them to survive.  Autopsies of brains of people with Alzheimer’s show shrinkage in crucial areas of the brain.

What’s not known is exactly why the protein deposits start in the first place. Age and genetic predisposition are the strongest risk factors. If you have a parent or brother or sister who developed the disease, you are two to three times more likely to develop it yourself than someone with no family history. Less is known about avoidable risk factors—the things you can control—but this is an area of intense research, and has produced some findings that you can use right now to lower your own risk. Here’s what you need to know.

PROTECTING YOUR BRAIN WITH SUPPLEMENTS

The Protective Effects of Fish Oil

Eating fish regularly decreases your chances of developing Alzheimer’s, and research shows that it’s the DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) in fish that’s offering the protection. Older people with the highest blood levels of DHA were about half as apt to develop dementia and 39% as apt to develop Alzheimer’s as those with lower blood levels of DHA over a nine-year period, according to Tufts University researchers. Those with the highest blood levels consumed about 180 mg of DHA a day—the amount found in three servings of fish a week. DHA decreases the formation of amyloid plaque, researchers say. (Schaefer, EJ, Arch Neurol, Nov. 2006: 63:1545-50.)

Therapeutic Dosage: We currently recommend taking at least the amount found effective in this study, 180 mg a day of DHA or more if possible. Also, make sure the fish oil you take is certified to be contaminant free. See our Omega-T Fish Oil.

Vitamin D Boosts Mood and Memory

We now know that vitamin D affects virtually all body tissues, including the brain, and a new study suggests that getting enough D can improve some mood and memory problems. In a group of older people, those with low blood levels of vitamin D were more likely to have mild depressive symptoms such as lack of interest or indecisiveness than people with adequate blood levels. Deficiency was also linked to poor thinking skills like memory, judgment and problem-solving. (Wilkins, CH et al: Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2006; 14:1032-1040)

Therapeutic Dosage: Leading experts now recommend 1,000-2,000 IU of vitamin D a day, with 1,000 IU coming from supplementation. Some 25% to 54% of all adults over age 60 are low in vitamin D. See Our Multi Nutrient Formulas.

Folic Acid Adds Years to Your Brain

Dark leafy greens contain folic acid, which protects your brain two ways: it helps to reduce inflammation, by lowering neurotoxic homocysteine levels, and it seems to interfere with expression of the genes involved in dementia.

Dutch researchers studied 818 subjects aged 50 to 70 with high homocysteine levels. They found that those who took 800 mcg of folic acid daily for three years had better memory and information-processing speed than those taking a placebo. The difference was dramatic. On memory tests, those taking 800 mcg of folic acid daily scored as well as people 5.5 years younger. (Durga J. et al, Lancet 2007; 369:208-216.)

Therapeutic Dosage: We recommend 800 mcg, the amount found effective in this study.  (If you have a history of cancer, check with your doctor before taking this amount.) See Our Multi Nutrient Formulas.

Don’t Forget B12

With so much new research on nutrition and the brain, it’s easy to forget about vitamin B12, a nutrient long known for its critical role in nerve and brain function. B12 is needed to keep nerves working properly throughout the body. Plus, it works with folic acid and vitamin B6 to neutralize neurotoxic homocysteine.

New research from Tufts University shows just how important vitamin B12 really is to brain function. They looked at B12 and folic acid status in people age 60 or older. Not unexpectedly, they found that people’s thinking abilities were best when they had adequate blood levels of both vitamins. Surprisingly though, cognitive abilities were worst in seniors with low vitamin B12 and high serum folate levels. Anemia and impaired thinking were observed nearly five times as often for people with this combination than among people with normal B12 and folate levels.  This finding led researchers to conclude that, although it’s important to get enough folic acid, in seniors, too much folic acid and too little B12 is just as bad.  You need both. (Morris, MS, et al. Amer J Clin Nutr 2007(Jan); 85:193-200.)

Therapeutic Dosage: We recommend 500 mcg of vitamin B12 daily. Deficiency is more common in seniors than commonly realized, most often because of absorption problems, not a lack of B12 in the diet. Symptoms can occur even with a low-normal blood level and may include any of the following: numbness and tingling in hands and feet, difficulty maintaining balance, depression, poor memory, fatigue and confusion. Don’t write these symptoms off as old age– and don’t let your doctor do it, either! See Our Multi Nutrient Formulas.

Curcumin: Better Than Alzheimer’s Drugs!

In India, Alzheimer’s disease rates are reportedly among the world’s lowest. That may be because of those tasty Indian curries.

New research suggests that curcumin, found in turmeric, the main spice in curry, can stop the build-up of destructive beta-amyloid protein in the brain – the plaques that gunk up the works. Curcumin can also break up existing plaques by stimulating immune cells called macrophages to clear out the plaque. Plus, it has unique anti-inflammatory effects. As with many chronic diseases, inflammation appears to play a role in the development of Alzheimer’s disease.

These findings suggest that curcumin is more effective in inhibiting plaque formation than many other drugs being tested as Alzheimer’s treatments, the researchers concluded. (July 16, 2007, online early edition of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.)

Therapeutic Dosage: Optimal dosages have yet to be determined. We currently recommend 200 mg of curcumin a day for Alzheimer’s prevention. See Our Brain Energizer Formula.

Green Tea’s EGCG Slows Brain Aging

Green tea can slow brain aging, helping to prevent declining memory, cognitive impairment, dementia and Alzheimer’s. In fact, in elderly Japanese men and women, drinking more than 2 cups a day of green tea slashed odds of cognitive impairment by 54%–more than half! Those who drank less – 4 to 6 cups a week, or about one cup a day, still had 38% lower risk of cognitive impairment compared to those drinking less than 3 cups a week. (A Japanese cup of green tea is small–about 3.2 fluid ounces.)

Green tea’s main protection comes from EGCG, a powerful antioxidant that researchers say helps detoxify beta-amyloid. EGCG also removes toxic iron from brain cells, (Kuriyama, Shinichi, Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83:355-61.) and brand new Israeli research finds that EGCG even reverses brain cell degeneration by spurring new growth, making it a potential treatment for Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. (Presented at the Fourth International Scientific Symposium of Tea and Human Health, Sept. 18, in Washington, D.C.)

Therapeutic Dosage:  We recommend 450 mg of green tea extract standardized to at least 50% EGCG daily. That’s the amount found in three cups of green tea. See Our High Antioxidant Green Tea Formula.

How Ginkgo Helps Brain Cells

The herb Ginkgo biloba is one of the most widely-used herbs in the world. It can improve blood circulation and protect nerve tissue, including the brain, from aging-related damage.

Research suggests that 120 to 240 mg daily of ginkgo may be as helpful as drugs such as donepezil (Aricept) to people with early stage Alzheimer’s. Though a long-awaited trial, sponsored by the National Institute on Aging, and completed in 2002, found that 120 mg of ginkgo taken for 6 weeks by more than 200 healthy adults over 60 did not improve memory, experts say this study may have been too short, or used too small an amount, to see results.  Right now, the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine is conducting a large study of ginkgo to see if it prevents the onset of dementia and, specifically, Alzheimer’s disease. The study will be completed in July, 2009.

Therapeutic Dosage: We recommend 120 to 240 mg a day to people age 50 or older. (It’s wise to review your health history and any other medications you are taking with your doctor or pharmacist first.) See our Multi Nutrient PLUS Formula.

Acetyl-L-Carnitine Appears to Help, Too

Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALC) helps to prevent age-related cognitive decline and possibly Alzheimer’s disease. It plays an important role in energy production in the body, and is used to make the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which has many roles in the body, including muscle and brain function.

Studies show that ALC can protect brain cells from neurotoxicity and oxygen deprivation, preserve a cell’s energy-producing mitochondria, and dramatically rejuvenate mental and physical functioning.

A review of the evidence by British investigators showed that taking ALC improved memory and overall mental functioning in people with mild cognitive impairment and early Alzheimer’s. (Cochrane Database System Review 2003(2): CD003158 )

Therapeutic Dosage: Effective dosages for Alzheimer’s range from 1,500-4,000 mg a day, usually divided into two or three doses during the day. For simple age-related memory impairment, 1,500-2,000 mg daily has been used.  We recommend medical supervision for more than 1,000 mg a day. See Our Acetyl-L-Carnitine.

The Right Kind of Vitamin E Slashes Risk 26%

Why did high-vitamin E foods fend off Alzheimer’s in recent studies, but vitamin E in supplements not do as well?

It’s because most supplements use the wrong type of vitamin E. Most supplements have only one form of E, alpha-tocopherol. However, vitamin E in food consists of a mixture of tocopherols of 4 types–alpha, beta, delta and gamma–as well as tocotrienols, another form of vitamin E.

A mix of tocopherols, as in food, has the most potent anti-Alzheimer’s activity, rather than alpha tocopherol alone, as found in most supplements. Research has found that eating just five extra milligrams a day of vitamin E in foods such as walnuts and unrefined oils cut Alzheimer’s risk 26%, by protecting brain cells from oxidative damage and inflammation. (Morris, M., Amer J Clin Nutrition, Feb. 2006.)

Therapeutic Dosage: For Alzheimer’s disease, doses of up to 2,000 IUs a day of vitamin E have been used. However, we recommend no more than 400-800 IU a day of mixed tocopherols and ideally tocotrienols, unless you have medical supervision. See Our Multi Nutrient Formulas.

FIGHTING FORGETFULNESS WITH FOOD

Even if you have a strong family history of Alzheimer’s disease, you can reduce your chances of developing it with the same healthy lifestyle changes that prevent heart disease and cancer, such as:

Eat three or more servings of vegetables a day, including one dark leafy green vegetable. In a study, older people who did so had brains that functioned like they were five years younger. (Morris, MC et al: Neurology  2006; 67:1370-6.)

Eat fatty fish such as salmon, mackerel or sardines three times a week or more. The fats in fish protect your brain.

Satisfy sweet cravings with dark, minimally-processed chocolate. It improves blood flow to the brain and can help maintain healthy brain function.  Look for products that list the amount of flavanols they contain or that have a “Cocoapro” logo.

Go ethnic. Indian, Chinese, Japanese and Mediterranean cuisines all use foods and spices that can help you stay sharp, such as curry, garlic, green tea, and ginger.

Go easy on sugar.  Drinking sugar water more than doubled the amount of amyloid plaque in animals. Researchers say the equivalent in humans is roughly five cans of soda a day. (J. Biol. Chem., Dec 2007; 282: 36275-36282 ; doi:10.1074/jbc.M703561200.)

CHALLENGE YOUR BRAIN TO STAY SHARP

Maintaining an active mind may slow the build-up of plaques and tangles in the brain, research suggests. Anything that’s challenging but fun will do. Try cooking or language classes, crossword or jigsaw puzzles, socializing with people you find stimulating, scrap booking or genealogical research. For online stimulation, check out a company called Happy Neuron (www.happy-neuron.com). This website gives temporary free access to video games that strengthen language, memory, judgment and coordination.

THINK AEROBIC EXERCISE

As little as three hours of walking a week over a period of six months can increase neurons and neuronal connections in the brains of older adults, research has found. However, only aerobic exercise produces significant increases in brain volume in areas of the brain related to age-related cognitive decline.  Brisk walking, hill climbing, swimming or biking—anything that quickens your heart rate and breathing—will work.
RELATED PRODUCTS:

Brain Energizer Stop Aging Now’s Brain Energizer is a proprietary blend of seven all natural ingredients, each of which possess strong scientific evidence backing their ability to provide broad-spectrum attack on multiple mechanisms that underlie age-related neuro-degeneration and cognitive dysfunction. It contains clinical doses of alpha lipoic acid, DHA, CoQ10, Vitaberry™, curcumin and vinpocetine. Each works in a different way to energuze your brain, your thinking processes, your memory retention and to provide clarity to your overall thought processes.

Acetyl-L-Carnitine Stop Aging Now’s Acetyl-L-Carnitine (ALC) is made with 100% L-Carnipure, one of the highest quality, most researched and purest forms. Recent research has catapulted ALC into the scientific spotlight as a potential enhancer of mental and physical energy, both alone and especially with alpha lipoic acid (which is found in all of our Multi Nutrient Formulas as well as our Brain Energizer Formula). The aging process robs the body of acetyl-L-carnitine and such deficits appear to be tied to energy slumps as we age. So we highly recommend acetyl-L-carnitine for anyone who feels as if they have lost mental and physical energy, especially since the downsides are extremely minimal and side effects are virtually non-existent.

Omega-T Fish Oil Not all fish oil is created equal. Some contain synthetic oils, others get their oil from fish that have lower amounts of DHA and EPA, and others don’t bother to check for contaminants at all. Our Omega-T Fish Oil stands out as one of the best fish oils available, period. It is formulated with pure, potent and fresh, all natural fish oil that is extremely high in DHA and EPA. It contains molecularly distilled fish body oils from imported Norwegian salmon and is certified to be contaminant-free by independent testing. It is also fortified with vitamin E and CoQ10 for maximum freshness, absorbability and potency. The result is simply the best fish oil that money can buy.

Multi Nutrient Formula PLUS Stop Aging Now’s Multi Nutrient Formula PLUS contains therapeutic doses of all of the ingredients mentioned in this special report including folic acid, vitamin D, vitamin B12, curcumin, green tea, vitamin E and ginkgo biloba as well as 22 other essential nutrients. It is a complete, high-potency multi-vitamin that protects cells against aging, provides a broad spectrum of nutrients to balance out deficiencies in your diet and supports optimal wellness and health. Based on our best-selling Multi Nutrient Formula, it includes Ginkgo Biloba for optimal memory and circulatory support. Our PLUS Formula includes science-based doses of 29 select, anti-aging vitamins, minerals and antioxidants for men and women of all ages. Features the antioxidant capacity of 10 servings of fruits and vegetables.

High Antioxidant Green Tea Extract Stop Aging Now’s High Antioxidant Green Tea Extract is made from the purest, most potent green tea extract available. Each serving features 450 mg of green tea extract, of which 70% contains the active ingredient EGCG. This is one of the highest amounts of EGCG achievable and is the same amount used in many anti-cancer studies. The result is a Green Tea Extract that takes full advantage of all of green tea’s miraculous benefits with a potent dose of antioxidants, with each serving equaling the antioxidant capacity for 12 servings of fruits and vegetables. Decaffeinated.

Most weight loss pills work by suppressing the appetite in some way. This is often done by changing the chemicals in the brain to make the body feel full or reduce the positive feelings that come from eating. Xenical, on the other hand, is a weight loss option that has no effect on the brain. Instead, Xenical works in the digestive system.

In your digestive system there are enzymes, known as lipases, which help break down the fat that you eat so that your body can absorb it. Without lipases, fat would pass through the digestive tract and be expelled when you had a bowel movement. Xenical has an ingredient in it that bonds to some of the lipases in your body and keeps them from allowing the fat to be absorbed into your body. As a result, the fat is expelled when you have a bowel movement instead of being absorbed by your body and added to your already growing deposits of fat. Since some fat is necessary for healthy living, Xenical only blocks about one-third of the fat you consume from being absorbed into your body.

Xenical is highly effective at blocking the absorption of some fat. However, this alone is not sufficient for weight loss. Simply blocking the absorption of fat may keep you from gaining more weight, but it will not cause you to lose the weight you have already gained. This requires a reduced calorie diet and exercise, and adding Xenical to the equation can help you lose more weight.

Xenical, combined with a diet low in fat, is highly effective as a weight loss solution. In a clinical study that followed obese patients for over a year, researchers found that those who took Xenical along with a low fat diet lost twice as much weight as those who only dieted. Patients who have a body mass index of 30 or higher are good candidates for this medication. Also, those with lower body mass indexes who have other risk factors, such as hypertension, could benefit from adding Xenical to their weight loss plans. Other than changes to your bowel movements, which can sometimes be embarrassing, there are few risks or side effects known with the use of Xenical. Some vitamins from your food are not absorbed as well when you take Xenical, so you should take a vitamin supplement containing A, D, E and K whilst you are on this medication.
by D. Jones

Osteoporosis is a condition in which your bones become thin and more likely to break. Osteoporosis mainly affects older people and can affect anyone. However, some people have an increased risk of developing osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is the most common degenerative disease in developed countries because of extended lifespan. It is characterized by loss of bone and increased skeletal fragility, leading to an increased number of fractures. Continue Reading…